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goats bite and crop them, especially in the mornings, | you must gather before they be full ripe: and in a the dew being on, the tear cometh forth, and hang- fair and dry day towards noon; and when the wind eth upon their beards: of this sort is some kind of bloweth not south; and when the moon is under the laudanum. earth, and in decrease.

618. The irrigation of the plane-tree by wine, is reported by the ancients to make it fruitful. It would be tried likewise with roots; for upon seeds it worketh no great effects.

619. The way to carry foreign roots a long way, is to vessel them close in earthen vessels. But if the vessels be not very great, you must make some holes in the bottom, to give some refreshment to the roots; which otherwise, as it seemeth, will decay and suffocate.

620. The ancient cinnamon was, of all other plants, while it grew, the driest; and those things which are known to comfort other plants, did make that more steril; for in showers it prospered worst; it grew also amongst bushes of other kinds, where commonly plants do not thrive; neither did it love the sun. There might be one cause of all those effects; namely, the sparing nourishment which that plant required. Query, how far cassia, which is now the substitute of cinnamon, doth participate of these things?

621. It is reported by one of the ancients, that | cassia, when it is gathered, is put into the skins of beasts newly flayed; and that the skins corrupting and breeding worms, the worms do devour the pith and marrow of it, and so make it hollow; but meddle not with the bark, because to them it is bitter. 622. There were in ancient time vines of far greater bodies than we know any; for there have been cups made of them, and an image of Jupiter. But it is like they were wild vines; for the vines that they use for wine, are so often cut, and so much digged and dressed, that their sap spendeth into the grapes, and so the stalk cannot increase much in bulk. The wood of vines is very durable, without rotting. And that which is strange, though no tree hath the twigs, while they are green, so brittle, yet the wood dried is extreme tough; and was used by the captains of armies amongst the Romans for their cudgels.

623. It is reported, that in some places vines are suffered to grow like herbs, spreading upon the ground; and that the grapes of those vines are very great. It were good to make trial, whether plants that use to be borne up by props, will not put forth greater leaves and greater fruits if they be laid along the ground; as hops, ivy, woodbine, &c.

624. Quinces, or apples, &c. if you will keep them long, drown them in honey; but because honey, perhaps, will give them a taste over-luscious, it were good to make trial in powder of sugar, or in syrup of wine, only boiled to height. Both these would likewise be tried in oranges, lemons, and pomegranates; for the powder of sugar, and syrup of wine, will serve for more times than once.

625. The conservation of fruit would be also tried in vessels filled with fine sand, or with powder of chalk; or in meal and flour; or in dust of oak wood; or in mill.

626. Such fruits as you appoint for long keeping,

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627. Take grapes, and hang them in an empty vessel well stopped; and set the vessel not in a cellar, but in some dry place; and it is said they will last long. But it is reported by some, they will keep better in a vessel half full of wine, so that the grapes touch not the wine.

628. It is reported that the preserving of the stalk helpeth to preserve the grape; especially if the stalk be put into the pith of elder, the elder not touching the fruit.

629. It is reported by some of the ancients, that fruit put in bottles, and the bottles let down into wells under water, will keep long.

630. Of herbs and plants, some are good to eat raw; as lettuce, endive, purslane, tarragon, cresses, cucumbers, musk-melons, radish, &c.; others only after they are boiled, or have passed the fire; as parsley, clary, sage, parsnips, turnips, asparagus, artichokes, though they also being young are eaten raw : but a number of herbs are not esculent at all; as wormwood, grass, green corn, centuary, hyssop, lavender, balm, &c. The causes are, for that the herbs that are not esculent, do want the two tastes in which nourishment resteth; which are fat and sweet; and have, contrariwise, bitter and over-strong tastes, or a juice so crude as cannot be ripened to the degree of nourishment. Herbs and plants that are esculent raw, have fatness, or sweetness, as all esculent fruits; such are onions, lettuce, &c. But then it must be such a fatness, (for as for sweet things, they are in effect always esculent,) as is not over-gross, and loading of the stomach; for parsnips and leeks have fatness; but it is too gross and heavy without boiling. It must be also in a substance somewhat tender; for we see wheat, barley, artichokes, are no good nourishment till they have passed the fire; but the fire doth ripen, and maketh them soft and tender, and so they become esculent. As for radish and tarragon, and the like, they are for condiments, and not for nourishment. And even some of those herbs which are not esculent, are notwithstanding poculent; as hops, broom, &c. Query, what herbs are goods for drinks besides the two aforenamed; for that it may perhaps ease the charge of brewing, if they make beer to require less malt, or make it last longer.

631. Parts fit for the nourishment of man in plants are, seeds, roots, and fruits; but chiefly seeds and roots. For leaves, they give no nourishment at all, or very little no more do flowers, or blossoms, or stalks. The reason is, for that roots, and seeds, and fruits, inasmuch as all plants consist of an oily and watery substance commixed, have more of the oily substance; and leaves, flowers, &c. of the watery. And secondly, they are more concocted; for the root which continueth ever in the earth, is still concocted by the earth; and fruits and grains we see are half a year or more in concocting; whereas leaves are out and perfect in a month.

632. Plants, for the most part, are more strong

both in taste and smell in the seed, than in the leaf | natural sap of the tree corrupteth into some preterand root. The cause is, for that in plants that are natural substance. not of a fierce and eager spirit, the virtue is increased by concoction and maturation, which is ever most in the seed; but in plants that are of a fierce and eager spirit, they are stronger whilst the spirit is enclosed in the root; and the spirits do but weaken and dissipate when they come to the air and sun; as we see it in onions, garlick, dragon, &c. Nay, there be plants that have their roots very hot and aromatical, and their seeds rather insipid; as ginger. The cause is, as was touched before, for that the heat of those plants is very dissipable; which under the earth is contained and held in; but when it cometh to the air it exhaleth.

633. The juices of fruits are either watery or oily. I reckon among the watery, all the fruits out of which drink is expressed; as the grape, the apple, the pear, the cherry, the pomegranate, &c. And there are some others which, though they be not in use for drink, yet they appear to be of the same nature; as plums, services, mulberries, rasps, oranges, lemons, &c. and for those juices that are so fleshy, as they cannot make drink by expression, yet, perhaps, they may make drink by mixture of

water:

Poculaque admistis imitantur vitea sorbis.

And it may be hips and brier-berries would do the like. Those that have oily juices, are olives, almonds, nuts of all sorts, pine-apples, &c. and their juices are all inflammable. And you must observe also, that some of the watery juices, after they have gathered spirit, will burn and inflame; as wine. There is a third kind of fruit that is sweet, without either sharpness or oiliness: such as is the fig and the date.

634. It hath been noted, that most trees, and specially those that bear most, are fruitful but once in two years. The cause, no doubt, is the expense of sap; for many orchard trees, well cultured, will bear divers years together.

635. There is no tree, which besides the natural fruit doth bear so many bastard fruits as the oak doth for besides the acorn, it beareth galls, oak apples, and certain oak nuts, which are inflammable; and certain oak berries, sticking close to the body of the tree without stalk. It beareth also misseltoe, though rarely. The cause of all these may be the claseness and solidness of the wood, and pith of the oak, which maketh several juices find several eruptions, And therefore if you will devise to make by enper-plants, you must ever give the sap plentifol rising and hard issue.

636. There are two excrescences which grow pon trees; both of them in the nature of mushrens: the one the Romans call boletus; which enoweth upon the roots of oaks; and was one of the unties of their table; the other is medicinal, that called agaric, whereof we have spoken before, which groweth upon the tops of oaks; though it be firmed by some, that it groweth also at the roots. I do conceive, that many excrescences of trees grow chiefly where the tree is dead or faded; for that the

637. The greater part of trees bear most and best on the lower boughs; as oaks, figs, walnuts, pears, &c. but some bear best on the top boughs ; as crabs, &c. Those that bear best below, are such as shade doth more good to than hurt. For generally all fruits bear best lowest; because the sap tireth not, having but a short way: and therefore in fruits spread upon walls, the lowest are the greatest, as was formerly said: so it is the shade that hindereth the lower boughs; except it be in such trees as delight in shade, or at least bear it well. And therefore they are either strong trees, as the oak; or else they have large leaves, as the walnut and fig; or else they grow in pyramis, as the pear. But if they require very much sun, they bear best on the top; as it is in crabs, apples, plums, &c.

638. There be trees that bear best when they begin to be old; as almonds, pears, vines, and all trees that give mast. The cause is, for that all trees that bear mast have an oily fruit; and young trees have a more watery juice, and less concocted; and of the same kind also is the almond. The pear likewise, though it be not oily, yet it requireth much sap, and well concocted; for we see it is a heavy fruit and solid; much more than apples, plums, &c. As for the vine, it is noted, that it beareth more grapes when it is young; but grapes that make better wine when it is old; for that the juice is better concocted: and we see that wine is inflammable; so as it hath a kind of oiliness. But the most part of trees, amongst which are apples, plums, &c. bear best when they are young.

639. There be plants that have a milk in them when they are cut; as figs, old lettuce, sow-thistles, spurge, &c. The cause may be an inception of putrefaction: for those milks have all an acrimony: though one would think they should be lenitive. For if you write upon paper with the milk of a fig, the letters will not be seen, until you hold the paper before the fire, and then they wax brown: which showeth that it is a sharp or fretting juice: lettuce is thought poisonous, when it is so old as to have milk; spurge is a kind of poison in itself; and as for sow-thistles, though coneys eat them, yet sheep and cattle will not touch them and besides, the milk of them rubbed upon warts, in short time weareth them away; which showeth the milk of them to be corrosive. We see also that wheat and other corn, sown, if you take them forth of the ground before they sprout, are full of milk; and the beginning of germination is ever a kind of putrefaction of the seed. Euphorbium also hath a milk, though not very white, which is of a great acrimony : and saladine hath a yellow milk, which hath likewise much acrimony; for it cleanseth the eyes. It is good also for cataracts.

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640. Mushrooms are reported to grow, as well upon the bodies of trees, as upon their roots, or upon the earth; and especially upon the oak. The cause is, for that strong trees are towards such excrescences in the nature of earth; and therefore put forth moss, mushrooms, and the like.

641. There is hardly found a plant that yieldeth | another small herb out of the leaf; which is ima red juice in the blade or ear; except it be the puted to some moisture that is gathered between the tree that beareth sanguis draconis; which groweth prickles, which putrified by the sun germinateth. chiefly in the island Socotra: the herb amaranthus But I remember also I have seen, for a great rarity, indeed is red all over; and brazil is red in the wood; one rose grow out of another like honeysuckles, that and so is red sanders. The tree of the sanguis dra- they call top and top-gallants. conis groweth in the form of a sugar-loaf. It is like the sap of that plant concocteth in the body of the tree. For we see that grapes and pomegranates are red in the juice, but are green in the tear: and this maketh the tree of sanguis draconis lesser towards the top; because the juice hasteneth not up; and besides, it is very astringent; and therefore of slow motion.

642. It is reported, that sweet moss, besides that upon the apple-trees, groweth likewise sometimes upon poplars; and yet generally the poplar is a smooth tree of bark, and hath little moss. The moss of the larix-tree burneth also sweet, and sparkleth in the burning. Query of the mosses of odorate trees; as cedar, cypress, lignum aloës, &c. 643. The death that is most without pain, hath been noted to be upon the taking of the potion of hemlock; which in humanity was the form of execution of capital offenders in Athens. The poison of the asp, that Cleopatra used, hath some affinity with it. The cause is, for that the torments of death are chiefly raised by the strife of the spirits; and these vapours quench the spirits by degrees; like to the death of an extreme old man. I conceive it is less painful than opium, because opium hath parts of heat mixed.

644. There be fruits that are sweet before they be ripe, as myrobalanes: so fennel seeds are sweet before they ripen, and after grow spicy. And some never ripen to be sweet; as tamarinds, barberries, crabs, sloes, &c. The cause is, for that the former kind have much and subtle heat, which causeth early sweetness; the latter have a cold and acid juice, which no heat of the sun can sweeten. But as for the myrobalane, it hath parts of contrary natures; for it is sweet and yet astringent.

645. There be few herbs that have a salt taste; and contrariwise all blood of living creatures hath a saltness. The cause may be, for that salt, though it be the rudiment of life, yet in plants the original taste remaineth not; for you shall have them bitter, sour, sweet, biting, but seldom salt; but in living creatures, all those high tastes may happen to be sometimes in the humours, but are seldom in the flesh or substance, because it is of a more oily nature which is not very susceptible of those tastes; and the saltness itself of blood is but a light and secret saltness and even among plants, some do participate of saltness, as alga marina, samphire, scurvy grass, &c. And they report, there is in some of the Indian seas a swimming plant, which they call salgazus, spreading over the sea in such sort, as one would think it were a meadow. It is certain, that out of the ashes of all plants they extract a salt which they use in medicines.

646. It is reported by one of the ancients, that there is an herb growing in the water, called lincostis, which is full of prickles: this herb putteth forth

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647. Barley, as appeareth in the malting, being steeped in water three days, and afterwards the water drained from it, and the barley turned upon a dry floor, will sprout half an inch long at least: and if it be let alone, and not turned, much more; until the heart be out. Wheat will do the same. Try it also with peas and beans. This experiment is not like that of the orpine and semper-vive: for there it is of the old store, for no water is added: but here it is nourished from the water. The experiment would be farther driven: for it appeareth already, by that which hath been said, that earth is not necessary to the first sprouting of plants; and we see that rose-buds set in water will blow: therefore try whether the sprouts of such grains may not be raised to a farther degree, as to an herb, or flower, with water only, or some small commixture of earth: for if they will, it should seem by the experiments before, both of the malt and of the roses, that they will come far faster on in water than in earth; for the nourishment is easilier drawn out of water than out of earth. It may give some light also, that drink infused with flesh, as that with the capon, &c. will nourish faster and easilier than meat and drink together. Try the same experiment with roots as well as with grains; as for example, take a turnip, and steep it a while, and then dry it, and see whether it will sprout.

648. Malt in the drenching will swell; and that in such a manner, as after the putting forth in sprouts, and the drying upon the kiln, there will be gained at least a bushel in eight, and yet the sprouts are rubbed off; and there will be a bushel of dust besides the malt; which I suppose to be, not only by the loose and open lying of the parts, but by some addition of substance drawn from the water in which it was steeped.

649. Malt gathereth a sweetness to the taste, which appeareth yet more in the wort. The dulcoration of things is worthy to be tried to the full; for that dulcoration importeth a degree to nourishment: and the making of things inalimental to become alimental, may be an experiment of great profit for making new victual.

650. Most seeds in the growing, leave their husk or rind about the root; but the onion will carry it up, that it will be like a cap upon the top of the young onion. The cause may be, for that the skin or husk is not easy to break; as we see by the pilling of onions, what a holding substance the skin is.

651. Plants that have curled leaves, do all abound with moisture; which cometh so fast on, as they cannot spread themselves plain, but must needs gather together. The weakest kind of curling is roughness; as in clary and burr. The second is curling on the sides; as in lettuce, and young calbage: and the third is folding into a head; as in cabbage full grown, and cabbage-lettuce.

652. It is reported, that fir and pine, especially if they be old and putrified, though they shine not as some rotten woods do, yet in the sudden breaking they will sparkle like hard sugar.

653. The roots of trees do some of them put downwards deep into the ground; as the oak, pine, fir, &c. Some spread more towards the surface of the earth; as the ash, cypress-tree, olive, &c. The cause of this latter may be, for that such trees as love the sun, do not willingly descend far into the earth; and therefore they are, commonly, trees that shoot up much; for in their body their desire to approach to the sun maketh them spread the less. And the same reason under ground to avoid recess from the sun, maketh them spread the more. And we see it cometh to pass in some trees which have been planted too deep in the ground, that for love of approach to the sun, they forsake their first root, and put out another more towards the top of the earth. And we see also, that the olive is full of oily juice; and ash maketh the best fire; and cypress is a hot tree. As for the oak, which is of the former sort, it loveth the earth; and therefore groweth slowly. And for the pine and fir likewise, they have so much heat in themselves, as they need less the heat of the sun. There be herbs also that have the same difference; as the herb they call morsus diaboli; which putteth the root down so low, as you cannot pull it up without breaking; which gave occasion to the name and fable; for that it was said, it was so wholesome a root, that the devil, when it was gathered, bit it for envy and some of the ancients do report, that there was a goodly fir, which they desired to remove whole, that had a root under ground right cubits deep; and so the root came up broken.

654. It hath been observed, that a branch of a tree, being unbarked some space at the bottom, and so set into the ground, hath grown; even of such trees, as if the branch were set with the bark on, they would not grow; yet contrariwise we see, that a tree pared round in the body above ground, will die. The cause may be, for that the unbarked part draweth the nourishment best, but the bark continueth it only.

655. Grapes will continue fresh and moist all winter long, if you hang them cluster by cluster in the roof of a warm room; especially if when you gather the cluster, you take off with the cluster some of the stock.

of earth and water, it draweth most nourishment from water; which maketh it the smoothest of all others in bark, and the hollowest in body.

657. The sap of trees when they are let blood, is of differing natures. Some more watery and clear; as that of vines, of beeches, of pears: some thick, as apples: some gummy, as cherries: some frothy, as elms some milky, as figs. In mulberries the sap seemeth to be almost towards the bark only; for if you cut the tree a little into the bark with a stone, it will come forth; if you pierce it deeper with a tool, it will be dry. The trees which have the moistest juices in their fruit, have commonly the moistest sap in their body; for the vines and pears are very moist; apples somewhat more spungy : the milk of the fig hath the quality of the rennet, to gather cheese; and so have certain sour herbs wherewith they make cheese in Lent.

658. The timber and wood are in some trees more clean, in some more knotty; and it is a good trial to try it by speaking at one end, and laying the ear at the other: for if it be knotty, the voice will not pass well. Some have the veins more varied and chambletted; as oak, whereof wainscot is made; maple, whereof trenchers are made: some more smooth, as fir and walnut: some do more easily breed worms and spiders; some more hardly, as it is said of Irish trees: besides there be a number of differences that concern their use; as oak, cedar, and chestnut, are the best builders; some are best for plough-timber, as ash; some for piers, that are sometimes wet and sometimes dry, as elm; some for planchers, as deal; some for tables, cupboards, and desks, as walnuts; some for ship-timber, as oaks that grow in moist grounds; for that maketh the timber tough, and not apt to rift with ordnance; wherein English and Irish timber are thought to excel some for masts of ships, as fir and pine, because of their length, straightness, and lightness : some for pale, as oak; some for fuel, as ash; and so of the rest.

559. The coming of trees and plants in certain regions, and not in others, is sometimes casual: for many have been translated, and have prospered well; as damask-roses, that have not been known in England above a hundred years, and now are so common. But the liking of plants in certain soils more than in others, is merely natural; as the fir and pine love the mountains; the poplar, willow, sallow, and alder, love rivers and moist places; the ash loveth coppices, but is best in standards alone; juniper loveth chalk; and so do most fruit trees; samphire groweth but upon rocks; reeds and osiers grow where they are washed with water; the vine loveth sides of hills, turning upon the south-east sun, &c.

656. The reed or cane is a watery plant, and groweth not but in water; it hath these properties; that it is hollow; that it is knuckled both stalk and root; that being dry, it is more hard and fragile than other wood; that it putteth forth no boughs, though many stalks out of one root. It differeth much in greatness; the smallest being fit for thatching of houses, and stopping the chinks of ships, 660. The putting forth of certain herbs discoveretter than glue or pitch. The second bigness is eth of what nature the ground where they put forth sed for angle-rods and staves; and in China for is; as wild thyme showeth good feeding-ground for beating of offenders upon the thighs. The differ- cattle; betony and strawberries show grounds fit ng kinds of them are the common reed, the cassia for wood; camomile showeth mellow grounds fit for fistula, and the sugar-reed. Of all plants it bow-wheat. Mustard-seed, growing after the plough, eth the easiest, and riseth again. It seemeth, that showeth a good strong ground also for wheat: buramongst plants which are nourished with mixture net showeth good meadow, and the like.

661. There are found in divers countries some other plants that grow out of trees and plants, besides misseltoe: as in Syria there is an herb called cassytas, that groweth out of tall trees, and windeth itself about the same tree where it groweth, and sometimes about thorns. There is a kind of polypode that groweth out of trees, though it windeth not. So likewise an herb called faunos, upon the wild olive. And an herb called hippophæston upon the fullers thorn: which, they say, is good for the falling sickness.

662. It hath been observed by some of the ancients, that howsoever cold or easterly winds are thought to be great enemies of fruit, yet nevertheless south winds are also found to do hurt, especially in the blossoming time; and the more if showers follow. It seemeth they call forth the moisture too fast. The west winds are the best. It hath been observed also, that green and open winters do hurt trees; insomuch as if two or three such winters come together, almond-trees, and some other trees, will die. The cause is the same with the former, because the lust of the earth overspendeth itself: howsoever some other of the ancients have commended warm winters.

663. Snows lying long cause a fruitful year; for first, they keep in the strength of the earth; secondly, they water the earth better than rain: for in snow, the earth doth, as it were, suck the water as out of the teat: thirdly, the moisture of snow is the finest moisture, for it is the froth of the cloudy

waters.

664. Showers if they come a little before the ripening of fruits, do good to all succulent and moist fruits; as vines, olives, pomegranates; yet it is rather for plenty than for goodness; for the best vines are in the driest vintages: small showers are likewise good for corn, so as parching heats come not upon them. Generally night showers are better than day showers, for that the sun followeth not so fast upon them; and we see even in watering by the hand, it is best in summer time to water in the evening.

whereof the grass is soon parched with the sun, and toasted, is commonly forced earth, and barren in its own nature. The tender, chessome, and mellow earth, is the best, being mere mould, between the two extremes of clay and sand, especially if it be not loamy and binding. The earth, that after rain will scarcely be ploughed, is commonly fruitful; for it is cleaving and full of juice.

666. It is strange, which is observed by some of the ancients, that dust helpeth the fruitfulness of trees, and of vines by name; insomuch as they cast dust upon them of purpose. It should seem, that that powdering, when a shower cometh, maketh a kind of soiling to the tree, being earth and water finely laid on. And they note, that countries where the fields and ways are dusty bear the best vines.

667. It is commended by the ancients for an excellent help to trees, to lay the stalks and leaves of lupins about the roots, or to plough them into the ground where you will sow corn. The burning also of the cuttings of vines, and casting them upon land, doth much good. And it was generally received of old, that dunging of grounds when the west wind bloweth, and in the decrease of the moon, doth greatly help; the earth, as it seemeth, being then more thirsty and open to receive the dung.

668. The grafting of vines upon vines, as I take it, is not now in use: the ancients had it, and that three ways: the first was incision, which is the or dinary manner of grafting: the second was terebration through the middle of the stock, and putting in the cions there and the third was paring of two vines that grow together to the marrow, and binding them close.

669. The diseases and ill accidents of corn are worthy to be inquired: and would be more worthy to be inquired, if it were in men's power to help them; whereas many of them are not to be remedied. The mildew is one of the greatest, which, out of question, cometh by closeness of air; and therefore in hills, or large champain grounds, it seldom cometh; such as is with us York's woald. This cannot be remedied, otherwise than that in countries of small 665. The differences of earths, and the trial of enclosure the grounds be turned into larger fields: them, are worthy to be diligently inquired. The which I have known to do good in some farms. earth, that with showers doth easiliest soften, is Another disease is the putting forth of wild oats, commended; and yet some earth of that kind will whereinto corn oftentimes, especially barley, doth debe very dry and hard before the showers. The generate. It happeneth chiefly from the weakness earth that casteth up from the plough a great clod, of the grain that is sown; for if it be either too old is not so good as that which casteth up a smaller or mouldy, it will bring forth wild oats. Another clod. The earth that putteth forth moss easily, and disease is the satiety of the ground; for if you sow may be called mouldy, is not good. The earth that one ground still with the same corn, I mean not the smelleth well upon the digging or ploughing is com- same corn that grew upon the same ground, but the mended; as containing the juice of vegetables almost same kind of grain, as wheat, barley, &c. it will already prepared. It is thought by some, that the prosper but poorly: therefore besides the resting of ends of low rainbows fall more upon one kind of the ground you must vary the seed. Another ill earth than upon another; as it may well be; for accident is from the winds, which hurt at two times; that that earth is most roscid: and therefore it is at the flowering, by shaking off the flowers; and at commended for a sign of good earth. The poor- the full ripening, by shaking out the corn. Another ness of the herbs, it is plain, show the poorness of ill accident is drought, at the spindling of the corn, the earth; and especially if they be in colour more which with us is rare, but in hotter countries com. dark but if the herbs show withered, or blasted mon: insomuch as the word calamitas was first deat the top, it showeth the earth to be very cold; | rived from calamus, when the corn could not get out and so doth the mossiness of trees. The earth, of the stalk. Another ill accident is over-wet at

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