was adjudged to be sufficiently set forth by the Prepositions or and CONCERNING.

Perhaps it may make my readers smile; but I mention it as a further instance of the importance of inquiry into the meaning of words;-that in the decision of the Judges in the House of Lords, the Chief Justice De Grey (who found or and CONCERNING so comprehensive, clear, and definite) began by declaring that " the word Certainty [which the Law requires in the description of Crimes] is as indefinite [that is, as Uncertain] as any word that could be used." Now though certainty is so uncertain, we must suppose the word Libel to be very definite and yet, if I were called upon for an equivalent term, I believe I could not find in our language any word more popularly apposite than Calumny; which is defined by Cicero, in his Offices, to be—" callida et malitiosa Juris interpretatio.”

If there was any Mistake (which, however, I am very far from believing) in this decision, sanctioned by the Judges and the House of Lords; I shall be justified in applying (with the substitution of the single word Grammatici for Istorici) what Giannone, who was himself an excellent lawyer, says of his countrymen of the same profession :-" Tanta ignoranza avea loro bendati gli occhi, che si pregiavano d'essere solamente Legisti, e non Grammatici; non accorgendosi, che perchè non erano Grammatici, eran perciò CATTIVI LEGISTI."-Ist. Civil. di Napoli. Intro.

CHAPTER VI.

OF THE WORD THAT.

B. BUT besides the Articles, "properly and strictly so called," I think Mr. Harris and other Grammarians say that there are some words which, according to the different manner of using them, are sometimes Articles and sometimes Pronouns : and that it is difficult to determine to which class they ought to be referred.1

1 "It must be confessed indeed that all these words do not always appear as Pronouns. When they stand by themselves and represent

H.-They do so. And, by so doing, sufficiently instruct us (if we will but use our common sense) what value we ought to put upon such classes and such definitions.

B.-Can you give us any general rule by which to distinguish when they are of the one sort, and when of the other?

H.-Let them give the rule who thus confound together the Manner of signification of words, and the Abbreviations in their Construction: than which no two things in Language are more distinct, or ought to be more carefully distinguished. I do not allow that Any words change their nature in this manner, so as to belong sometimes to one Part of Speech, and sometimes to another, from the different ways of using them. I never could perceive any such fluctuation in any word whatever: though I know it is a general charge brought erroneously against words of almost every denomination.' But it appears to me to be all, Error: arising from the false measure which has been taken of almost every sort of words. Whilst the words themselves appear to me to continue faithfully and steadily attached, each to the standard under which it was originally inlisted. But I desire to wave this matter for the present; because I think it will be cleared up by what is to follow concerning the other sorts of words: at least, if that should not convince you, I shall be able more easily to satisfy you on this head hereafter.

some Noun, (as when we say THIS is virtue, or deɩktikws, Give me THAT,) then are they Pronouns. But when they are associated to some Noun, (as when we say THIS habit is virtue, or dEIKTIKOS, THAT man defrauded me,) then, as they supply not the place of a Noun, but only serve to ascertain one, they fall rather into the species of Definitives or Articles. That there is indeed a near relation between Pronouns and Articles, the old Grammarians have all acknowledged; and some words it has been doubtful to which class to refer. The best rule to distinguish them is this.-The genuine Pronoun always stands by itself, assuming the power of a noun, and supplying its place. The genuine Article never stands by itself, but appears at all times associated to something else, requiring a noun for its support, as much as Attributives or Adjectives."-Hermes, book 1. chap. 5.

1 "Certains mots sont Adverbes, Prépositions, et Conjonctions en même temps et répondent ainsi au même temps à diverses parties d'oraison selon que la grammaire les emploie diversement."-Buffier,

art. 150.

And so say all other Grammarians.

B. I would not willingly put you out of your own way, and am contented to wait for the explanation of many things till you shall arrive at the place which you may think proper for it. But really what you have now advanced seems to me so very extraordinary and contrary to fact, as well as to the uniform declaration of all Grammarians, that you must excuse me if, before we proceed any further, I mention to you one instance.

:

Mr. Harris and other Grammarians say that the word THAT is sometimes an Article and sometimes a Pronoun. However, I do not desire an explanation of that [point] because I see how you will easily reconcile that [difference], by a subauditur or an abbreviation of Construction: and I agree with you there. But what will you do with the Conjunction THAT?

Is not this a very considerable and manifest fluctuation and difference of signification in the same word? Has the Conjunction THAT, any the smallest correspondence or similarity of signification with THAT, the Article, or Pronoun?

H.-In my opinion the word THAT (call it as you please, either Article, or Pronoun, or Conjunction) retains always one and the same signification. Unnoticed abbreviation in construction and difference of position have caused this appearance of fluctuation; and misled the Grammarians of all languages, both ancient and modern for in all they make the same mistake. Pray, answer me a question. Is it not strange and improper that we should, without any reason or necessity, employ in English the same word for two different meanings and purposes?

B.-I think it wrong: and I see no reason for it, but many reasons against it.

H.-Well! Then is it not more strange that this same impropriety, in this same case, should run through ALL languages? And that they should ALL use an Article, without any reason, unnecessarily, and improperly, for this same Conjunction; with which it has, as you say, no correspondence nor similarity of signification?

B.-If they do so, it is strange.

H.-They certainly do; as you will easily find by inquiry. Now does not the uniformity and universality of this supposed mistake, and unnecessary impropriety, in languages which

have no connexion with each other, naturally lead us to suspect that this usage of the Article may perhaps be neither mistaken nor improper? But that the mistake may lie only with us, who do not understand it?

B.-No doubt what you have said, if true, would afford ground for suspicion.

H.-If true! Examine any languages you please, and see whether they also, as well as the English, have not a supposed Conjunction which they employ as we do THAT; and which is also the same word as their supposed Article, or Pronoun. Does not this look as if there was some reason for employing the Article in this manner? And as if there was some connexion and similarity of signification between it and this Conjunction?

B.-The appearances, I own, are strongly in favour of your opinion. But how shall we find out what that connexion is?

H.-Suppose we examine some instances; and, still keeping the same signification of the sentences, try whether we cannot, by a resolution of their construction, discover what we want.

Example.-"I wish you to believe THAT I would not wilfully hurt a fly."

Resolution." I would not wilfully hurt a fly; I wish you to believe THAT [assertion]."

Ex.-"She, knowing THAT Crooke had been indicted for forgery, did so and so."

Resol.-"Crooke had been indicted for forgery; she, knowing THAT [fact], did so and so."1

Ex." You say THAT the same arm which, when contracted, can lift-; when extended to its utmost reach, will not be able to raise. You mean THAT we should never forget our situation, and THAT we should be prudently contented to do good within our own sphere, where it can have an effect: and THAT we should not be misled even by a virtuous benevolence and public spirit, to waste ourselves in fruitless efforts beyond our power of influence."

Resol. "The same arm which, when contracted, can lift-; when extended to its utmost reach, will not be able to raise- :

1

King v. Lawley. Strange's Reports, Easter T. 4 Geo. II.

you say THAT. We should never forget our situation; you mean THAT: and we should be contented to do good within our own sphere where it can have an effect; you mean THAT: and we should not be misled, even by a virtuous benevolence and public spirit to waste ourselves in fruitless efforts beyond our power of influence; you mean THAT."

Ex." They who have well considered THAT kingdoms rise or fall, and THAT their inhabitants are happy or miserable, not so much from any local or accidental advantages or disadvantages; but accordingly as they are well or ill governed; may best determine how far a virtuous mind can be neutral in politics."

Resol.-"Kingdoms rise or fall, not so much from any local or accidental advantages or disadvantages, but accordingly as they are well or ill governed; they who have well considered THAT [maxim], may best determine how far a virtuous mind can be neutral in politics. And the inhabitants of kingdoms are happy or miserable, not so much from any local or accidental advantages or disadvantages, but accordingly as they are well or ill governed; they who have considered THAT, may best determine how far a virtuous mind can be neutral in politics."

1 "Le despotisme écrase de son sceptre de fer le plus beau pays du monde: Il semble que les malheurs des hommes croissent en proportion des efforts que la nature fait pour les rendre heureux.”—Savary.

"Dans ce paradis terrestre, au milieu de tant de richesses, qui croiroit que le Siamois est peut-être le plus misérable des peuples? Le gouvernement de Siam est despotique: le souverain jouit seul du droit de la liberté naturelle à tous les hommes. Ses sujets sont ses esclaves; chacun d'eux lui doit six mois de service personnel chaque année, sans aucun salaire et même sans nourriture. Il leur accorde les six autres pour se procurer de quoi vivre." [Happy, happy England, if ever thy miserable inhabitants shall, in respect of taxation, be elevated to the condition of the Siamois; when thy Taskmasters shall be contented with half the produce of thy industry!] "Sous un tel gouvernement il n'y a point de loi qui protège les particuliers contre la violence, et qui leur assure aucune propriété. Tout dépend des fantaisies d'un prince abruti par toute sorte d'excès, et surtout par ceux du pouvoir; qui passe ses jours enfermé dans un serrail, ignorant tout ce qui se fait hors de son palais, et sur tout les malheurs de ses peuples. Cependant ceux-ci sont livrés à la cupidité des grands, qui sont les premiers esclaves, et approchent seuls à des jours marqués, mais toujours en tremblant, de la personne du despote, qu'ils adorent comme une divinité