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the affections of bodies, nor the process of their parts, but merely establish a division of that mo tion, which coarsely exhibits to the senses matter in its varied form. Even when they wish to point out something relative to the causes of motion, and to establish a division of them, they most absurdly introduce natural and violent motion, which is also a popular notion, since every violent motion is also in fact natural, that is to say, the external efficient puts nature in action in a different manner to that which she had previously employed.

human understanding is perverted by observing | ferent species of it; they merely suggest how far, the power of mechanical arts, in which bodies and not how or whence. For they exhibit neither are very materially changed by composition or separation, and is induced to suppose that something similar takes place in the universal nature of things. Hence the fiction of elements, and their co-operation in forming natural bodies. Again, when man reflects upon the entire liberty of nature, he meets with particular species of things, as animals, plants, minerals, and is thence easily led to imagine that there exist in nature certain primary forms which she strives to produce, and that all variation from them arises from some impediment or error which she is exposed to in completing her work, or from the collision But if, neglecting these, any one were for inor metamorphosis of different species. The first stance to observe, that there is in bodies a tendency hypothesis has produced the doctrine of element- of adhesion, so as not to suffer the unity of nature ary properties, the second that of occult properties to be completely separated or broken, and a va and specific powers: and both lead to trifling courses cuum to be formed; or that they have a tendency of reflection, in which the mind acquiesces, and to return to their natural dimensions or tension, is thus diverted from more important subjects. so that, if compressed or extended within or be But physicians exercise a much more useful yond it, they immediately strive to recover them. labour in the consideration of the secondary quali- selves, and resume their former volume and extent; ties of things, and the operations of attraction, or that they have a tendency to congregate into repulsion, attenuation, inspissation, dilatation, masses with similar bodies, the dense, for instance, astringency, separation, maturation, and the like; towards the circumference of the earth, the thin and would do still more if they would not cor- and rare towards that of the heavens, these and rupt these proper observations by the two systems the like are true physical genera of motions, but I have alluded to, of elementary qualities and the others are clearly logical and scholastic, as specific powers, by which they either reduce the appears plainly from a comparison of the two. secondary to first qualities, and their subtile and Another considerable evil is, that men in their immeasurable composition, or at any rate neg-systems and contemplations bestow their labour lect to advance by greater and more diligent observation to the third and fourth qualities, thus terminating their contemplation prematurely. Nor are these powers (or the like) to be investigated only among the medicines of the human body, but also in all changes of other

natural bodies.

upon the investigation and discussion of the principles of things and the extreme limits of nature, although all utility and means of action consist in the intermediate objects. Hence meu cease not to abstract nature till they arrive at potential and shapeless matter, and still persist in their dissection, till they arrive at atoms; and yet, were all this true, it would be of little use to advance man's estate.

67. The understanding must also be cautioned against the intemperance of systems, so far as regards its giving or withholding its assent; for such intemperance appears to fix and perpetuate idols, so as to leave no means of removing them.

A greater evil arises from the contemplation and investigation rather of the stationary principles of things, from which, than of the active, by which things themselves are created. For the former only serve for discussion, the latter for practice. Nor is any value to be set on those common differences of motion which are observed in the received system of natural philosophy, as These excesses are of two kinds. The first is generation, corruption, augmentation, diminution, seen in those who decide hastily, and render the alteration, and translation. For this is their sciences positive and dictatorial. The other in meaning: if a body, unchanged in other respects, those who have introduced skepticism, and vague, is moved from its place, this is translation; if the unbounded inquiry. The former subdues, the place and species be given, but the quantity latter enervates the understanding. The Aristochanged, it is alteration; but if, from such a telian philosophy, after destroying other systems change, the mass and quantity of the body do not (as the Ottomans do their brethren) by its dispacontinue the same, this is the motion of augmentations, confutations, decided upon every thing, tation and diminution; if the change be continued and Aristotle himself then raises up questions at so as to vary the species and substance, and trans- | will, in order to settle them; so that every thing fuse them to others, this is generation and corruption. All this is merely popular, and by no means penetrates into nature; and these are but the measures and bounds of motion, and not dif

should be certain and decided, a method now in use among his successors.

The school of Plato introduced skepticism, first, as it were, in joke and irony, from their dislike

stration, provided it adhere to the experiment actually made; for if that experiment be transferred to other subjects apparently similar, unless with proper and methodical caution, it becomes fallacious.

to Protagoras, Hippias, and others, who were ashamed of appearing not to doubt upon any subject. But the new academy dogmatized in their skepticism, and held it as their tenet. Although this method be more honest than arbitrary deciThe present method of experiment sion, (for its followers allege that they by no is blind and stupid. Hence men wandering and means confound all inquiry, like Pyrrho and his roaming without any determined course, and condisciples, but hold doctrines which they can fol- sulting mere chance, are hurried about to various low as probable, though they cannot maintain points, and advance but little; at one time they them to be true,) yet, when the human mind has are happy, at another their attention is distracted, once despaired of discovering truth, every thing and they always find that they want something begins to languish. Hence men turn aside into further. Men generally make their experiments pleasant controversies and discussions, and into a carelessly, and as it were in sport, making some sort of wandering over subjects, rather than sus- little variation in a known experiment, and then, tain any rigorous investigation. But, as we ob- if they fail, they become disgusted and give up served at first, we are not to deny the authority the attempt: nay, if they set to work more seof the human senses and understanding, although riously, steadily, and assiduously, yet they waste weak; but rather to furnish them with assistance. all their time on probing some solitary matter; as 69. We have now treated of each kind of idols, and their qualities; all of which must be abjured and renounced with firm and solemn resolution, and the understanding must be completely freed and cleared of them; so that the access to the kingdom of man, which is founded on the sciences, may resemble that to the kingdom of heaven, where no admission is conceded except to children.

69. Vicious demonstrations are the muniments and support of idols, and those which we possess in logic, merely subject and enslave the world to human thoughts, and thoughts to words. But demonstrations are, in some manner, themselves systems of philosophy and science. For such as they are, and accordingly as they are regularly or improperly established, such will be the resulting systems of philosophy and contemplation. But those which we employ in the whole process leading from the senses and things to axioms and conclusions, are fallacious and incompetent. This process is fourfold, and the errors are in equal number. In the first place the impressions of the senses are erroneous, for they fail and deceive us. We must supply defects by substitutions, and fallacies by their correction. 2dly. Notions are improperly abstracted from the senses, and indeterminate and confused when they ought to be the reverse. 3dly. The induction that is employed is improper, for it determines the principles of sciences by simple enumeration, without adopting the exclusions, and resolutions, or just separations of nature. Lastly, the usual method of discovery and proof, by first establishing the most general propositions, then applying and proving the intermediate axioms according to them, is the parent of error and the calamity of every science. But we will treat more fully of that which we now slightly touch upon, when we come to lay down the true way of interpreting nature, after having gone through the above expiatory process and purification of the mind.

70. But experience is by far the best demonVOL. III-45

Gilbert on the magnet, and the alchymists on gold. But such conduct shows their method to be no less unskilful than mean. For nobody can successfully investigate the nature of any object by considering that object alone; the inquiry must be more generally extended.

Even when men build any science and theory upon experiment, yet they almost always turn with premature and hasty zeal to practice, not merely on account of the advantage and benefit to be derived from it, but in order to seize upon some security in a new undertaking of their not employing the remainder of their labour unprofit ably; and by making themselves conspicuous, to acquire a greater name for their pursuit. Hence, like Atalanta, they leave the course to pick up the golden apple, interrupting their speed, and giving up the victory. But, in the true course of experiment, and in extending it to new effects, we should imitate the Divine foresight and order. For God, on the first day, only created light, and assigned a whole day to that work, without creating any material substance thereon. In like manner, we must first, by every kind of experiment, elicit the discovery of causes and true! axioms, and seek for experiments which may afford light rather than profit. Axioms, when rightly investigated and established, prepare us not for a limited but abundant practice, and bring in their train whole troops of effects. But we will treat hereafter of the ways of experience, which are not less beset and interrupted than those of judgment; having spoken at present of common experience only as a bad species of demonstration, the order of our subject now requires some mention of those external signs of the weakness in practice of the received systems of philosophy and contemplation, which we referred to above, and of the causes of a circumstance at first sight so wonderful and incredible. For the knowledge of these external signs prepares the See Ax. 61, towards the end. This subject extends to

Ax. 78.

2 G2

way for assent, and the explanation of the causes from the origin and birthplace of our present removes the wonder; and these two circum- philosophy are not favourable. stances are of material use in extirpating more easily and gently the idols from the understanding.

nations live and breathe, were pronounced by them to be uninhabitable, nay, the travels of Democri tus, Plato, and Pythagoras, which were not extensive, but rather mere excursions from home, were considered as something vast. But in our times many parts of the new world, and every extremity of the old are well known, and the mass of experiments has been infinitely increased. Wherefore, if external signs were to be taken from the time of the nativity or procreation. (as in astrology,) nothing extraordinary could be predicted of these early systems of philosophy.

72. Nor are those much better which can be deduced from the character of the time and age, than the former from that of the country and na71. The sciences we possess have been princi- tion. For in that age the knowledge both of time pally derived from the Greeks: for the addition and of the world was confined and meagre, which of the Roman, Arabic, or more modern writers are is one of the worst evils for those who rely enbut few, and of small importance; and, such as they tirely on experience. They had not a thousand are, are founded on the basis of Greek invention. years of history, worthy of that name, but mere But the wisdom of the Greeks was professional fables and ancient traditions. They were acquaintand disputatious, and thus most adverse to the ed with but a small portion of the regions and investigation of truth. The name, therefore, of countries of the world-for they indiscriminately sophists, which the contemptuous spirit of those called all nations situated far towards the north who deemed themselves philosophers, rejected Scythians, all those to the west Celts; they and transferred to the rhetoricians, Gorgias, Pro- knew nothing of Africa, but the nearest part of tagoras, Hippias, Polus, might well suit the Ethiopia, or of Asia beyond the Ganges, and had whole tribe, such as Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, Epi- not even heard any sure and clear tradition of the curus, Theophrastus, and their successors, Chry-region of the new world. Besides, a vast number sippus, Carneades, and the rest. There was only of climates and zones, in which innumerable this difference between them, the former were mercenary vagabonds, travelling about to different states, making a show of their wisdom and requiring pay; the latter, more dignified and noble, in possession of fixed habitations, opening schools, and teaching philosophy gratuitously. Both, however, (though differing in other respects,) were professorial, and reduced every subject to controversy, establishing and defending certain sects and dogmas of philosophy: so that their doctrines were nearly (what Dionysius not unaptly objected to Plato) "the talk of idle old men to ignorant youths." But the more ancient Greeks, 73. Of all signs there is none more certain or as Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Leucippus, Democri- worthy than that of the fruits produced: for the tus, Parmenides, Heraclitus, Xenophanes, Philo- | fruits and effects are the sureties and vouchers, as laus, and the rest, (for I omit Pythagoras, as being superstitious,) did not (that we are aware) open schools; but betook themselves to the investigation of truth with greater silence, and with more severity and simplicity: that is, with less affectation and ostentation. Hence, in our opinion, they acted more advisedly, however their works may have been eclipsed in course of time by those lighter productions which better correspond with and please the apprehensions and passions of the vulgar: for time, like a river, bears down to us that which is light and inflated, and sinks that which is heavy and solid. Nor were even these more ancient philosophers free from the natural defect, but inclined too much to the ambition and vanity of forming a sect, and captivating public opinion; and we must despair of any inquiry after truth, when it condescends to such trifles. Nor must we omit the opinion or rather prophecy of an Egyptian priest with regard to the Greeks, "that they would for ever remain children, without any antiquity of knowledge or knowledge of antiquity." For they certainly have this in common with children, that they are prone to talking and incapable of generation, their wisdom being loquacious, and unproductive of effects. Hence the external signs derived

it were, for the truth of philosophy. Now, from the systems of the Greeks and their subordinate divisions in particular branches of the sciences during so long a period, scarcely one single experiment can be culled that has a tendency to elevate or assist mankind, and can be fairly set down to the speculations and doctrines of their philosophy. Celsus candidly and wisely confesses as murb, when he observes that experiments were ørst discovered in medicine, and that men afterwards built their philosophical systems upon them, and searched for and assigned causes, instead of the inverse method of discovering and deriving experiments from philosophy and the knowledge of causes. It is not, therefore, wonderful that the Egyptians (who bestowed divinity and sacred honours on the authors of new inventions) should have consecrated more images of brutes than of men; for the brutes, by their natural instinct, made many discoveries, whilst men discovered but few from discussion and the conclusions of reason.

The industry of the alchymists has produced some effect, by chance, however, and casualty, or from varying their experiments, (as mechanics also do,) and not from any regular art or theory; the

theory they have imagined rather tending to disturb | branches; that the heat of the sun and of fire are than to assist experiment. Those, too, who have totally different, so as to prevent men from supoccupied themselves with natural magic, (as they posing that they can elicit or form, by means of term it,) have made but few discoveries, and those fire, any thing similar to the operations of nature; of small import, and bordering on imposture. For and, again, that composition only is the work of which reason, in the same manner as we are cau- man and mixture of nature, so as to prevent men tioned by religion to show our faith by our works, from expecting the generation or transformation we may very properly apply the principle to phi- of natural bodies by art. Men will, therefore, losophy, and judge of it by its works; accounting easily allow themselves to be persuaded by this that to be futile which is unproductive, and still sign, not to engage their fortunes and labour in more so, if instead of grapes and olives it yield speculations, which are not only desperate, but but the thistle and thorns of dispute and contention. actually devoted to desperation. 74. Other signs may be selected from the increase and progress of particular systems of philosophy and the sciences. For those which are founded on nature grow and increase, whilst those which are founded on opinion change, and increase not. If, therefore, the theories we have mentioned were not like plants torn up by the roots, but grew in the womb of nature and were nourished by her; that which for the last two thousand years has taken place would never have happened: namely, that the sciences still continue in their beaten track, and nearly stationary, without having received any important increase; may, having, on the contrary, rather bloomed under the hands of their first author, and then faded away. But we see that the case is reversed in the mechanical arts, which are founded on nature and the light of experience, for they (as long as they are popular) seem full of life, and uninterruptedly thrive and grow, being at first rude, then convenient, lastly polished, and perpetually improved.

75. There is yet another sign, (if such it may be termed, being rather an evidence, and one of the strongest nature,) namely, the actual confession of those very authorities whom men now follow. For even they who decide on things so daringly, yet, at times, when they reflect, betake themselves to complaints about the subtilty of nature, the obscurity of things, and the weakness of man's wit. If they would merely do this, they might perhaps deter those who are of a timid disposition from further inquiry, but would excite and stimulate those of a more active and confident tura to further advances. They are not, however, satisfied with confessing so much of themselves, but consider every thing which has been either unknown or unattempted by themselves or their teachers, as beyond the limits of possibility; and thus, with most consummate pride and envy, convert the defects of their own discoveries into a calumny on nature, and a source of despair to every one else. Hence arose the new academy, which openly professed skepticism and consigned mankind to eternal darkness. Hence the notion that forms, or the true differences of things, (which are in fact the laws of simple action,) are beyond man's reach, and cannot possibly be discovered. Hence those notions in the active and operative

76. Nor should we omit the sign afforded by the great dissension formerly prevalent among philosophers, and the variety of schools, which sufficiently show that the way was not well prepared, that leads from the senses to the understanding, since the same groundwork of philosophy (namely, the nature of things) was torn and divided into such widely differing and multifarious errors. And although, in these days, the dissensions and differences of opinions with regard to first principles and entire systems are nearly extinct, yet there remain innumerable questions and controversies with regard to particular branches of philosophy. So that it is manifest that there is nothing sure or sound either in the systems themselves or in the methods of demonstration.

77. With regard to the supposition that there is a general unanimity as to the philosophy of Aristotle, because the other systems of the ancients ceased and became obsolete on its promul gation, and nothing better has been since discovered; whence it appears that it is so well. determined and founded as to have united the suffrages of both ages; we will observe-1st. That the notion of other ancient systems having ceased after the publication of the works of Aristotle is false, for the works of the ancient philosophers subsisted long after that event, even to the time of Cicero and the subsequent ages. But at a later period, when human learning had, as it were, been wrecked in the inundation of barbarians into the Roman empire, then the systems of Aristotle and Plato were preserved in the waves of ages, like blanks of a lighter and less solid nature. 2d. The notion of unanimity on a clea inspection is found to be fallacious. For true unanimity is that which proceeds from a free judgment arriving at the same conclusion after an investigation of the fact. Now, by far the greater number of those who have assented to the philosophy of Aristotle, have bound themselves down to it, from prejudice and the authority of others, so that it is rather obsequiousness and concurrence than unanimity. But even if it were real and extensive unanimity, so far from being esteemed a true and solid confirmation, it should lead to a violent presumption to the contrary. For there is no worse augury in intellectual matte.s than that derived from unanimity, with the ex

ception of divinity and politics, where suffrages are allowed to decide. For nothing pleases the multitude, unless it strike the imagination or bind down the understanding, as we have observed above, with the shackles of vulgar notions. Hence we may well transfer Phocion's remark from morals to the intellect: "That men should immediately examine what error or fault they have committed, when the multitude concurs with and applauds them." This, then, is one of the most unfavourable signs. All the signs, therefore, of the truth and soundness of the received systems of philosophy and the sciences are unpropitious, whether taken from their origin, their fruits, their progress, the confessions of their authors, or from unanimity.

growth. It is well known that after the Christian religion had been acknowledged and arrived at maturity, by far the best wits were busied upon theology, where the highest tewards offered themselves, and every species of assistance was abundantly supplied, and the study of which was the principal occupation of the western European nations during the third epoch; the rather because literature flourished about the very time when controversies concerning religion first began to bud forth. 2. In the preceding ages, during the second epoch, (that of the Romans,) philosophical meditation and labour was chiefly occupied and wasted in moral philosophy, (the theology of the heathens :) besides, the greatest minds in these times applied themselves to civil affairs, on account of the magnitude of the Roman empire, which required the labour of many. 3. The age during which natural philosophy ap peared principally to flourish among the Greeks was but a short period, since in the more ancient times the seven sages (with the exception of Thales) applied themselves to moral philosophy and politics, and at a later period after Socrates had brought down philosophy from heaven to earth, moral philosophy became more prevalent, and diverted men's attention from natural. Nay, the very period during which physical inquiries flourished, was corrupted and rendered useless by contradictions and the ambition of new opinions. Since, therefore, during these three epochs, natural philosophy has been materially neglected or impeded, it is not at all surprising that men should have made but little progress in it, seeing they were attending to an entirely different matter.

78. We now come to the causes of errors,* and of such perseverance in them for ages. These are sufficiently numerous and powerful to remove all wonder that what we now offer should have so long been concealed from and have escaped the notice of mankind, and to render it more worthy of astonishment, that it should even now have entered any one's mind or become the subject of his thoughts; and that it should have done so, we consider rather the gift of fortune than of any extraordinary talent, and as the offspring of time rather than wit. But, in the first place, the number of ages is reduced to very narrow limits on a proper consideration of the matter. For, out of twenty-five centuries, with which the memory and learning of man are conversant, scarcely six can be set apart and selected as fertile in science and favourable in its progress. For there are deserts and wastes in times as in countries, and we can only reckon up three revolutions and epochs of philosophy. 1. The Greek. 2. The Roman. 3. Our own, that is, the philosophy of the western nations of Europe: and scarcely two centuries can with justice be assigned to each. The inter-selves to it, unless there may be an example or mediate ages of the world were unfortunate, both in the quantity and richness of the sciences produced. Nor need we mention the Arabs or the scholastic philosophy which, in those ages, ground down the sciences by their numerous treatises more than they increased their weight. The first cause, then, of such insignificant progress in the sciences is rightly referred to the small proportion of time which has been favourable thereto.

79. A second cause offers itself, which is certainly of the greatest importance; namely, that in those very ages in which men's wit, and literature flourished considerably, or even moderately, but a small part of their industry was bestowed on natural philosophy, the great mother of the sciences. For every art and science torn from this root may, perhaps, be polished and put into a serviceable shape, but can admit of little

✔ See end of Axiom 61. This subject extends to Axiom 93.

80. Add to this that natural philosophy, espe cially of late, has seldom gained exclusive possession of an individual free from all other pursuits, even amongst those who have applied them

two of some monk studying in his cell, or some nobleman in his villa. She has rather been made a passage and bridge to other pursuits.

Thus has this great mother of the sciences been degraded most unworthily to the situation of an handmaid, and made to wait upon medicine or mathematical operations, and to wash the imma ture minds of youth, and imbue them with a first dye, that they may afterwards be more ready to receive and retain another. In the mean time let no one expect any great progress in the sciences, (especially their operative part,) unless natural philosophy be applied to particular sciences, and particular sciences again referred back to natural philosophy. For want of this, astronomy, optics, music, many mechanical arts, medicine itself, and (what perhaps is more wonderful) moral and political philosophy, and the logical sciences have no depth, but only glide over the surface and variety of things; because these sciences, when they have been once partitioned out and esta

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